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    3. Vasili O. Kliuchevsky,A Course in Russian History: The Seventeenth Century (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1994), 366. See also Hosking,Russia, 4.
    4. John P. LeDonne,The Russian Empire and the World, 1700ndash;1917: The Geopolitics of Expansion and Containment
    (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 348.
    5. Henry Adams,The Education of Henry Adams (1907; New York: Modern Library, 1931), 439.
    6. Orlando Figes,Natashas Dance: A Cultural History of Russia (New York: Picador, 2002), 376ndash;77.
    7. 1864年俄国军队开进今天的乌兹别克斯坦时，外交大臣戈尔恰科夫把俄国的扩张定义为完全靠自身力量驱动的平定周边地区的一项永久性的义务：
    国家（俄国）因此必须做出一项抉择：要么放弃这一不间断的努力，从而导致边界地区动乱不已，难以实现繁荣、安全和文化进步；要么不断向荒蛮之地纵深挺进，每向前走一步，长途跋涉造成的困难就会增大一分，这不是出于野心，而是出于紧迫的需要。最难的是不需要再往前走。
    George Verdansky, ed., A Source Book for Russian History: From Early Times to 1917(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1972), 3:610.
    8. Marquis de Custine, Empire of the Czar, 230. 现代学者对此仍在进行研究。 See, for example, Charles J. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1985); Paul Harrison Silfen, The Influence of the Mongols on Russia: A Dimensional History (Hicksville, N.Y.: Exposition Press,1974).
    9. 彼得大帝事必躬亲的霸气作风令西欧国家感到惊奇。他在荷兰时去码头当木匠，在伦敦时拆卸钟表，再把它们修好。他还尝试牙科医学和解剖学领域里的新成果，令他的随从提心吊胆。See Virginia Cowles, The Romanovs (New York: Harper amp; Row, 1971), 33ndash;37; Robert K. Massie, Peter the Great (New York: Ballantine Books, 1980), 188ndash;89, 208.
    10. B. H. Sumner,Peter the Great and the Emergence of Russia (New York: Collier Books, 1962), 45.
    11. Cowles,Romanovs, 26ndash;28; Sumner,Peter the Great and the Emergence of Russia, 27; Figes,Natashas Dance, 4ndash;6.
    12. Catherine II,Nakaz (Instruction) to the Legislative Commission of 1767ndash;68, in Dmytryshyn, Imperial Russia, 80.
    13. Maria Lipman, Lev Gudkov, Lasha Bakradze, and Thomas de Waal, The Stalin Puzzle: Deciphering Post-Soviet Public Opinion (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2013) （对当代俄罗斯人的民意调查显示，47%的人接受以下说法：斯大林是一位睿智的领导人，他使苏联繁荣强大。30%的俄罗斯人认同以下说法：我国人民永远需要一位像斯大林一样的领导人。他将现身恢复秩序。）
    14. Catherine II,Nakaz (Instruction) to the Legislative Commission of 1767ndash;68, 80.
    15. Nikolai Karamzin on Czar Alexander I, as quoted in W. Bruce Lincoln,The Romanovs: Autocrats of All the Russias (New York: Anchor Books, 1981), 489.
    16. Halperin,Russia and the Golden Horde,126.
    17. Fyodor Dostoevsky,A Writers Diary (1881), as quoted in Figes,Natashas Dance, 308.
    18. Pyotr Chaadaev, Philosophical Letter (1829, published 1836), as quoted in Figes,Natashas Dance, 132, and
    Dmytryshyn, Imperial Russia, 251. 恰达耶夫的评论因一针见血而广为流传，尽管当局马上查封此文，宣布作者有神经病，并把他置于警察监视之下。
    19. Mikhail Nikiforovich Katkov, May 24, 1882, editorial inMoskovskie vedomosti (Moscow News), as excerpted in Verdansky,A Source Book for Russian History, 3:676.
    20. Figes,Natashas Dance, 150.
    21. Lincoln, The Romanovs, 404ndash;5.
    22. Ibid., 405.
    23. Wilhelm Schwarz,Die Heilige Allianz (Stuttgart, 1935), 52.
    24. 指1954年联邦德国决定加入大西洋联盟。它曾与今天新结成的伙伴打了一场残酷的战争，联邦德国做出的这一决定距它在战争结束时宣布无条件投降还不到10年。
    25. Klemens von Metternich,Aus Metternichs nachgelassenen Papieren, ed. Alfons v. Klinkowstroem (Vienna, 1881), 1:316.
    26. Palmerstons dispatch no. 6 to the Marquess of Clanricarde (ambassador in St. Petersburg), January 11, 1841, inThe Foreign Policy of Victorian England, ed. Kenneth Bourne (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970), 252ndash;53.
    27. See Isaiah Berlin,Vico and Herder: Two Studies in the History of Ideas (New York: Viking,1976), 158, 204.
    28. Jacques Barzun, From Dawn to Decadence: 500 Years of Western Cultural Life (New York: Perennial, 2000), 482.
    29. Sir Lewis Namier,Vanished Supremacies: Essays on European History, 1812ndash;1918 (NewYork: Penguin Books, 1958), 203.
    30. Otto von Bismarck,Die gesammelten Werke, 3rd ed. (Berlin, 1924), 1: 375.
    31. The battle was memorialized in classic literature on both sides, including Alfred Tennysons Charge of the Light Brigade and Leo TolstoysTales of Sevastopol. See Nicholas V. Riasanovsky,A History of Russia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 336ndash;39.
    32.Allgemeine deutsche Biographie 33 (Leipzig: Duncker amp; Humblot, 1891),266. Metternich left office in 1848.
    33. Heinrich Sbrik,Metternich, der Staatsmann und der Mensch, 2 vols. (Munich, 1925), 1:354, as cited in Henry A. Kissinger, The Conservative Dilemma: Reflections on the Political Thought of Metternich,American Political Science Review 48, no. 4 (December 1954): 1027.
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